MAY COTAIN MARKUP

Edited by Shivu Ishwaran

Micro-Macro Criminology Shoham links traditional criminology theories to broader cultural theories, introducing the concept of “mythogenes” to explain individual and group criminal behavior. Mythogenes are motivational structures that connect personal experiences to collective myths, influencing criminal behavior.

What Does the World Spend on Policing?by Farrell, Lane, Clark, and Tseloni:oThis paper examines global policing expenditures, highlighting the challenges of using available data sets for meta-level analysis. Itpresents three models for estimating global policing expenditure, with varying results:Per Capita Model: $264 billion (2000, inflation-adjusted)Linear Multiple Regression Model: $158.3 billion (2000, inflation-adjusted )Double Log Multiple Regression Model: $193.8 billion (2000, inflation-adjusted)

Issues and Patterns in the Comparative Study of Police Strength By Maguire andSchulte-Murray:oThe authors address the complexities of measuring police strength internationally, noting the rise in police strength outpacing population growth. They discuss the reliability of international data, primarily sourced from the United Nations World Crime Surveys (UNCJS), and provide estimates of police strength relative to population for various countries.

Women, Justice and Customs By Cyndi Banks:oBanks compares judicial discourse on custom in Papua New Guinea andCanada, focusing on its impact on women’s justice. In Papua New Guinea,the case of Miriam, an 18-year-old girl offered as compensation for her father's death,highlights the conflict between custom and constitutional rights. In Canada, Inuit customs have been used in legal defenses,sometimes leading to lenient sentencing in sexual assault cases.

Confronting the Contradiction: Global Capitalism and Environmental HealthbyMark Seis:o'Seis links environmental degradation to global capitalism, questioning the boundaries of criminology. He argues that economic globalization threatens democratic social movements and exacerbates environmental and social disparities.

Toward a Universal Declaration of the Rule of Lawby Bouloukos and Dakin:oThe authors advocate for a universal rule of law to ensure justice and sustainable development. They propose a Universal Declaration of the Rule of Law, modeled after the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, to provide a common framework for promoting the rule of law internationally.

Toward Comparative Studies of the U.S. Militia Movementby Freilich, Pienik, andHoward:oThis paper compares the U.S. militia movement to other social movements,providing a complex understanding of contemporary issues. The authors argue that militias share similarities with various social movements over time and place.

Crime Prevention Policy and Government Research By Gloria Laycock and RonClarke:oThe authors compare crime prevention programs in the U.S. and the U.K.,discussing the challenges of linking research to policy in different bureaucratic structures. They highlight the importance of strategic management and proactive dissemination of research findings to influence policy effectively.Conclusion:The document emphasizes the importance of including policing in comparative criminology and the need for future research to cover the many unrepresented topics and approaches. It highlights the role of judicial discretion, the complexities of integrating custom with modern legal systems, and the broader implications for human rights and gender equality. The struggle for ecological health is intertwined with the fight for human rights and democratic control over economic processes, posing significant threats to both environmental sustainability and social equity.

Brill, 2001, 260 pages

By EUGENE L. HOROWITZ

● Study Focus: The research investigates the development of attitudes toward African Americans in white children, aiming for objective, verifiable, and significant results.

● Historical Context: The study highlights the historical evolution of attitudes toward African Americans, noting legal and social discrimination dating back to the 17th century.

● Methodology: The research employs three tests involving pictorial materials to measure children's attitudes, focusing on ranking preferences and imagined social situations.

● Findings: The study finds that prejudice begins early in childhood and is influenced more by societal attitudes than direct contact with African Americans.

NY. ARCHIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY. R. S. WOODWORTH, EDITOR. No. 194. 1916. 48p.

WICKERSON, GRACE; BURTON, AUTUMN

The passage that follows includes several links embedded in the original text. From the document: "From August 2023 to March 2024, the Federation of American Scientists (FAS) talked with +'85 experts' to source '20 high-demand opportunity areas for ready policy innovation' and '65 policy ideas.' In response, FAS recruited '33 authors to work on +18 policy memos' through our 'Extreme Heat Policy Sprint' from January 2024 to April 2024, 'generating an additional +100 policy recommendations' to address extreme heat. Our experts' full recommendations will be published in April 2024; this report previews key findings. In total, FAS has collected '+165 recommendations for 34 offices and/or agencies.' Key opportunity areas are described below and link out to a set of featured recommendations. The accompanying spreadsheet includes the '165 policy ideas' developed through expert engagement. [...] America is rapidly barreling towards its next hottest summer on record. While we still lack national strategy, states, counties, and cities around the country have taken up the charge of addressing extreme heat in their communities and are experimenting on the fly. [...] While state and local governments can make significant advances, national extreme heat resilience requires a 'whole of government' federal approach, as it intersects health, energy, housing, homeland and national security, international relations, and many more policy domains. The federal government plays a critical role in scaling up heat resilience interventions through research and development, regulations, standards, guidance, funding sources, and other policy levers. 'But what are the transformational policy opportunities for action?'"

FEDERATION OF AMERICAN SCIENTISTS. JUN, 2024. 34p.

By C. James Watson , Genevra L. Stone, Daniel L. Overbeek1, Takuyo Chiba & Michele M. Burns

The rules of fair play in sport generally prohibit the use of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs). The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)

oversees global antidoping regulations and testing for elite athletes participating in Olympic sports. Efforts to enforce anti doping policies are complicated by the diverse and evolving compounds and strate gies employed by athletes to gain a competitive edge. Now between the uniquely proximate 2021 Tokyo and 2022 Beijing Olympic Games, we discuss WADA’s efforts to prevent PED use during the modern Olympic Games. Then, we review the major PED classes with a focus on pathophysiology, complexities of antidoping testing, and relevant toxicitiies. Providers from diverse practice environments are likely to care for patients using PEDs for a vari ety of reasons and levels of sport; these providers should be aware of common PED classes and their risks.

Journal of Internal Medicine, Volume291, Issue2, 2022

By Abby Chin

At the Olympic Games Rio de Janeiro 2016, world champion and Russian swimmer Yulia Efimova walked into the Olympics Aquatics Stadium not to cheers, but to the sound of boos.2 The crowd, and many athletes, condemned Efimova as a drug-using outcast who should not be allowed to compete in the Games. At the Rio Olympic Games, Efimova was one of seven swimmers from the Russian Federation who were formerly banned from the competition due to previously failed drug tests and the “World Anti-Doping Agency’s investigation into state-sponsored doping.”3 However, after an intense arbitration process, Efimova and her teammates were approved for competition. Efimova’s doping dispute began in 2013 when she received her first positive drug test and served a sixteen-month suspension.4 Next, in 2016, she tested positive for meldonium—the substance at issue for the alleged Russian state-sponsored doping.5 However, because meldonium did not officially become a banned substance until January 2016, many athletes claimed that, although they were no longer actively taking it, they were still testing positive because traces of meldonium were left in their system.6 This left a question about who would decide an athlete’s future competition eligibility after a positive test. While many different agencies were involved, Efimova’s positive drug test came from the World Anti Doping Agency (WADA). A positive test usually leads to a suspension, which athletes can appeal through the Court of Arbitration for Sports (CAS). However, because the positive test results occurred in an Olympic year—and with the was scrutiny of the entire Russian Olympic Federation—the International Olympic Committee (IOC) would also influence the outcome of the doping investigation.7 In its press release, the IOC stated athletes who had served prior suspensions unrelated to meldonium would be banned.8 If meldonium was the athlete’s first offense, it was up to the individual federations governing each sport to decide the fate of each individual athlete.9 However, the IOC decision conflicted with CAS precedent, which allowed athletes to return to competition with a clean slate after serving their entire suspension for a positive drug test.10 As a result, there was confusion and uncertainty as to whether these Olympic athletes could compete.11 Efimova appealed to the CAS, requesting to be reinstated to compete as she had already served her suspension. The CAS, believing it was inappropriate to ban athletes like Efimova for having already served suspension, granted the appeal.12 Efimova was able to compete in Rio despite the backlash of many other competitors and nations.13 Whether Efimova deserved the backlash, it became clear there was a significant problem with the uncertainty and lack of knowledge as to the appropriate process for punishing athletes who tested positive. Through the different rulings of the three major governing bodies involved, Efimova was placed under rigid scrutiny, in part because people did not understand the disciplinary process, her right to an appeal, and her right to receive relief from her sanction. This Note will examine the effect of the governing bodies, specifically during an Olympic year, on athletes involved in doping disputes and suggest a more streamlined arbitration process for the governing bodies to use when determining the eligibility of athletes in doping disputes. Currently, the arbitration process lacks transparency and efficiency because of the arbitrator selection process, the costs associated with bringing a dispute in front of an appeals panel, and the mandatory nature of arbitration in international sports. Hence, to create more just dispute outcomes, the arbitration process should become more informal, and athletes should be given the option for a final appeal. Section II of this Note discusses the different governing bodies and their processes for dealing with doping disputes. Section III demonstrates how the different governing bodies work around each other when handling disputes. This section also analyzes the positive and negative impacts of the way in which governing bodies work together. Section IV explores Efimova’s doping dispute in depth to provide an example of the arbitration process. Section V specifically describes the current concerns with the CAS arbitration process and ultimately offers a possible solution for a better-streamlined dispute process, such as modifying the current arbitration and arbitrator selection proceedings or allowing for an appeal from a CAS arbitrator decision.

OHIO STATE JOURNAL ON DISPUTE RESOLUTION [Vol. 33:3 2018]

By Susanne Dell and Graham Robertson

Summary of main points

•The Maudsley Monographs are a series of publications that report on work carriedout in the Institute of Psychiatry and the associated Hospital.

•The monographs cover both clinical problems and scientific fields relevant topsychiatry.

•This particular monograph focuses on offenders in Broadmoor Hospital.

•The authors of the monograph are Susanne Dell and Graham Robertson.

•The monograph includes references to various studies and publications related toforensic psychiatryand the treatment of offenders.

•The authors express gratitude to Dr. Paul Bowden, Dr. Adrian Grounds, and othersfor their input and assistance in the preparation of the monograph.

Oxford University Press, 1988, 170 pages