By Giacomo Persi Paoli

The potential role of the dark web in facilitating trade in firearms, ammunition and explosives has gained increased public attention following recent terrorist attacks and other criminal activities worldwide. In fact, the hidden and obscured parts of the web are used by criminals and others to access a worldwide market where it’s possible to procure or sell a wide range of weapons and associated products through encrypted marketplaces and vendor shops.

Following the outcomes of the Third United Nations Conference to Review Progress Made in the Implementation of the Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects, which acknowledged the importance of considering new challenges and opportunities arising from new forms of illicit trafficking, this Occasional Paper summarises the main findings and implications of the first empirical study investigating the scale and scope of arms trafficking on the dark web.

The findings of this study shed light on the scale and scope of arms trafficking on the dark web, illustrating the range of weapons traded, their market price and most common transit routes. In addition, this Occasional Paper discusses the implications of this growing phenomenon for law enforcement agencies and policy makers, highlighting the key role that firearms control measures continue to play in the presence of new forms of trafficking.

New York: United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs, 2018. 107p.

By Péricles Gasparini Alves

When the terms small arms, light weapons, and firearms are discussed in international debates, it may be thought that the only difference between them is merely a semantic—after all, they all refer to arms which injure and kill people. To a large extent, this is true, but the striking differences in the way these terms are defined, have direct implications as to how, when and with what means illicit trafficking is dealt with nationally and by the international community as a whole….

The present paper seeks to broaden the international debate on the matter by arguing that both the nationalist and internationalist perspectives need to be taken into account in the fight against illicit trafficking. This is demonstrated by the situation in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, where the criminal use of firearms and access to ever-higher calibre weapons is a serious problem; where the number of firearms seized is significant; and where foreign-manufactured firearms constitute over one third of all seizures. The rampant availability of firearms to individuals as well as to semi- or organized crime in Rio de Janeiro and other Brazilian towns and regions, not only threatens the security of ordinary citizens and discredits the rule of law, but could also undermine the stability of the State in the long run. To address the illicit trafficking in firearms at its basis regardless of the end-use of the firearms, whether criminal or State security-oriented, a concerted effort by local, subregional, regional and international authorities is needed. Moreover, for measures put in place to be effective, these must embrace every type of illicitly trafficked firearm plus a wide range of ammunition, whether legally acquired or not. Special attention to the stock-keeping and tracing of explosives will also be required.

Geneva: United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, 2001. 62p,

By European Crime Prevention Network

This theoretical paper is published by the EUCPN Secretariat in connection with the theme of the Dutch Presidency, which is trafficking in illicit firearms. With the terrorist attacks that shook Europe the past months in hindsight, the subject is more relevant than ever. Trafficking in illicit firearms is a dangerous and deadly business, which should not be taken lightly. Because of the cross-border aspect of trafficking in illicit firearms, it is important to have a global overview. Where do the weapons come from, how do they enter the illicit market and what are the modus operandi of the traffickers? This paper should function as a base for a more prevention-orientated manual in which we will look at the difficulties and attempts to prevent trafficking in illicit firearms. Furthermore we will focus at the main international weapons and what the international agencies already do against the phenomenon. Through these actions, we hope to raise awareness concerning trafficking in illicit firearms, to exchange good practices and hopefully to propose general guidelines for a trafficking in illicit firearms policy.

Brussels: European Crime Preevntion Network, 2016. 22p,

By Jana Mudra, with the assistance of Yuriy Kryvonos, Iina Kuuttila, Jane Lawson and Ida Scarpino

Illicit trafficking of SALW affects numerous States in the Asia-Pacific region, many of which continue to experience relatively high levels of gun violence. Following the call by multiple UN General Assembly and Security Council resolutions since 2000, the United Nations Regional Centre for Peace and Disarmament in Asia and the Pacific (UNRCP) has sought to further arms-control objectives by strengthening women’s participation in preventing and combating illicit trade in small arms and light weapons (SALW). With the aim of promoting gender-responsive efforts to combat the uncontrolled spread of and enhance national control over SALW and to prevent gun-violence, UNRCPD implemented a region-wide project on ‘Gun Violence and Illicit Small Arms Trafficking from a Gender Perspective’. This project was designed for women leaders of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) focused on gender issues/women’s empowerment, and for Members of Parliament (MPs) engaging in arms-control issues. The project had the following five activities: 1) Sub-regional workshop for Southeast Asia; 2) Sub-regional workshop for South Asia; 3) Sub-regional workshop for the Pacific; 4) Regional seminar for Asia and the Pacific; and 5) Compiling outcomes of the events in the Compendium The primary goal was to enhance the understanding on the impacts that illicit SALW trafficking and gun violence has on women, girls, men and boys for NGOs and MPs in the region.

Kathmandu: United Nations Regional Centre for Peace and Disarmament in Asia and the Pacific, 2020. 45p.

Editors: Ernesto U. Savona and Marina Mancuso

Project FIRE – Fighting Illicit firearms trafficking Routes and actors at European level (www. fireproject.eu) – was carried out with the financial support of the European Commission, DG Home Affairs, within the Prevention of and the Fight against Crime (ISEC) Programme. The research is an exploratory study on the illicit trafficking of firearms (ITF) in the EU. Based on the results obtained, it also provides recommendations on how to improve the fight against and the prevention of ITF. For the purposes of the study, ITF has been defined as every case in which the illicit acquisition, sale, delivery, movement or transfer of firearms, their parts or ammunition occur from, to, or within the territory of the EU.

Milano: Transcrime – Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 2017. 116p.

By William Godnick

This monograph is a modified version of a background paper prepared for a conference that took place in Ottawa, Canada in May 2001, bringing together representatives of the Member States of the Organization of American States (OAS), non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and civil society to discuss issues related to the July 2001 United Nations (UN) Conference on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (hereafter referred to as the UN Conference). This version takes into account the Programme of Action (PoA) adopted by the UN Member States as well as other emerging or consolidated initiatives in the western hemisphere.

British American Security Information Council, International Alert and Saferworld, 2002. 26p.

By William Godnick

This monograph is a modified version of a background paper prepared for a conference that took place in Ottawa, Canada in May 2001, bringing together representatives of the Member States of the Organization of American States (OAS), non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and civil society to discuss issues related to the July 2001 United Nations (UN) Conference on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (hereafter referred to as the UN Conference). This version takes into account the Programme of Action (PoA) adopted by the UN Member States as well as other emerging or consolidated initiatives in the western hemisphere.

British American Security Information Council, International Alert and Saferworld, 2002. 26p.

By Jenny Mouzos

Firearms can be important as instruments of crime. Their unauthorised movement across national borders constitutes a crime in its own right. Firearms posing the greatest threat are those that are easily concealable and less detectable, making them attractive for traffickers and criminals alike. In order to regulate the traffic of firearms at an international level, it is necessary to begin by regulating it at both a regional and a national level. This paper highlights international strategies aimed at curbing the proliferation of firearms into Australia. It also examines Australian government initiatives introduced to reduce the number of, and access to, illegal firearms in the community, and consequently to reduce firearm-related violence.

Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 1999. 6p.

By United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)

What is the relationship between violence, crime and arms trafficking in Colombia? This report aims to answer this question and provide an assessment of the arms situation in Colombia. The document provides an overview of violence with firearms in Colombia, the main violence-generating factors in the country, and the relationship between firearms and the different forms of violence. The author further examines the dynamics of the manufacturing, trafficking, illegal possession and carrying of small arms and light weapons, as well as the contraband routes, the groups involved, and the principal suppliers. Chapters of the book also consider different aspects of the institutional handling of firearms in Colombia and the different disarmament experiences that have taken place in the country, such as the disarmament experiences of rebel groups and those carried out voluntarily.

The document concludes by analysing the commitments, actions, and positions assumed by Colombia with respect to the different protocols, conventions, and cooperation agreements on small arms and light weapons. In this respect, the authors highlight the leadership and permanent initiative that Colombia has displayed in the international field, by promoting the signature and adoption of different instruments aimed at reducing illegal trafficking and strengthening controls of legal arms transfers at the international level. With the exception of the weak penalization for the illegal carrying of arms, the authors argue that Colombia has tried to adapt its internal legislation to international requirements and standards.

Bogota: UNODC, 2006. 127p.

By Kim Cragin and Bruce Hoffman

This report provides an analysis of black-market and gray-market sources of small arms, explosives, equipment, and material that are available to terrorist and insurgent organizations in Columbia with particular attention given to the sources and methods used by covert and/or illegal suppliers and purchasers to acquire, sell, buy, transfer, ship, and receive these items.

The extent and type of weaponry currently available to terrorists, insurgents, and other criminals are enormous. These groups have exploited and developed local, regional, and global supply channels to traffic in munitions and equipment worldwide. In the country of Columbia, the drug trade, a protracted insurgent conflict, nationwide corruption, and small arms proliferation have contributed to the political instability and violence in the country over the past century with small arms proliferation among the most serious of the problems.

Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2003. 208p.

By Matt Schroeder

When one thinks of arms traffickers, the image that often comes to mind is of the stereotypical ‘Merchant of Death’ – ambitious, well-connected, globetrotting entrepreneurs who single-handedly arm warlords and insurgents across the world. While there is some truth to the stereotype, most illicit arms traffickers do not fit this profile. The latest Issue Brief from the Small Arms Survey—Dribs and Drabs: The Mechanics of Small Arms Trafficking from the United States—analyses a side of the arms trade that is less flashy, less centralized, and even more difficult to stop. Using an extensive database compiled from court records, the Issue Brief looks at the modes of transport, concealment methods, and smuggling techniques employed by arms traffickers in the United States, most of whom bear little resemblance to the ‘Merchants of Death’.

This Issue Brief draws on a database that follows the activities of more than 400 individuals accused of illegally shipping small arms and light weapons, their parts, accessories, or ammunition from the US to at least 46 countries. It offers an overview of the types of small arms trafficked and how smugglers evade export controls and border controls. The Brief concludes with a policy-relevant analysis of the implications of these cases.

Geneva: Small Arms Survey, 2016. 16p.

By David Pérez Esparza

This thesis aims to explain why, against the background of a fairly global crime drop, violence and crime increased in Mexico in the mid-2000s. Since most classical hypotheses from criminological research are unable to account satisfactorily for these trends, this study tests the explanatory power of a situational hypothesis as the main independent variable (i.e. the role of opportunity). In particular, this involves testing whether the rise in violence can be explained by an increase in the availability of illegal weapons in Mexico resulting from policy changes and rises in gun production in the bordering U.S. To conduct this study, the thesis develops and implements an ad hoc analytic strategy (composed of six steps) that helps to examine each gun market (i.e. pistols, revolvers, rifles, and shotguns) both in the supply (U.S.) and in the illegal demand for firearms (Mexico). Following this market approach, the study finds that patterns of gun production in the U.S. temporally and spatially coincide with the patterns of gun confiscation (and violent crime) in Mexico. More specifically, analyses suggest that changes in illegal gun availability (across time and space) provide a better explanation for the observed difference in state-level homicide in Mexico than traditional hypotheses. The thesis presents additional analyses in favour of the situational hypothesis (through triangulation) and reports the findings of novel interviews with law enforcement officers with experience on gun trafficking in the U.S.-Mexico context. The study concludes by reviewing the key findings concerning the illicit markets between Mexico and the U.S., their theoretical and policy implications, as well as possible avenues for future research.

London: University College London, 2019. 389p.

By Jess T. Ford

In recent years, violence along the U.S.-Mexico border has escalated dramatically, due largely to the Mexican government's efforts to disrupt Mexican drug trafficking organizations (DTO). U.S. officials note the violence associated with Mexican DTOs poses a serious challenge for U.S. law enforcement, threatening citizens on both sides of the border, and U.S. and Mexican law enforcement officials generally agree many of the firearms used to perpetrate crimes in Mexico are illicitly trafficked from the United States across the Southwest border. GAO was asked to examine (1) data on the types, sources, and users of these firearms; (2) key challenges confronting U.S. government efforts to combat illicit sales of firearms in the United States and stem the flow of them into Mexico; (3) challenges faced by U.S. agencies collaborating with Mexican authorities to combat the problem of illicit arms; and (4) the U.S. government's strategy for addressing the issue. GAO analyzed program information and firearms data and met with U.S. and Mexican officials on both sides of the border.

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2009. 83p.

By U.S. Bureau of Justice Assistance

Throughout the United States, violence involving firearms remains at an alarmingly high rate. The Federal Bureau of Investigation’s 1996 Uniform Crime Reports indicates that firearms were used in 29 percent of all murders, robberies, and aggravated assaults in the United States in that year. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, firearms-related violence is a leading cause of injury-related death, second only to automobile-related fatalities. To stop the illegal flow of firearms to persons with criminal intent, law enforcement must develop strategies to address problems with gun dealers, stolen weapons, and illegal purchasers and suppliers. Furthermore, law enforcement cannot ignore the role that both nonlicensed and dishonest licensed firearms dealers play in the illegal movement of weapons. To address the illegal firearms trafficking issue, the Bureau of Justice Assistance created the Firearms Trafficking Program in fiscal year 1993. Three different initiatives were funded under this program: the Firearms Licensee Compliance Program, the Firearms Investigative Task Force Program, and the Innovative Firearms Program. Demonstration sites under each of these three initiatives were visited to identify goals, lessons learned, and promising practices and approaches of each project.

Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Justice Assistance, 2000. 96p.

By Small Arms Survey

As demonstrated in the Samll Arms Survey 2010, addressing the factors that trigger conflicts and fuel gang vioence has a much more lasting---and constructive---impact than simply incarcerating or marginalizing members of street gangs and armed groups.' Executive Director, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. `The Small Arms Survey 2010 provides further evidence that efforts to address gangs and gangs violence must encompass a wide range of measures---including not only targeted law enforcement tactics and illicit gun interdiction, but also prevention and youth development initiatives. In the long term, we must address the factors that lead young people to join gangs in the first place.'

Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 352p.

By Small Arms Survey

The Small Arms Survey 2007: Guns and the City offers new and updated information on small arms production, stockpiles, transfers, and measures, including a special focus on transfer controls. This year’s thematic section explores the complex issue of urban violence with case studies on Burundi and Brazil as well as a photo essay by award-winning combat photographer Lucian Read. This edition also features chapters on lessons learned from the tracing of ammunition, the relationship between gun prices and conflict, and the role of small arms in South Sudan.

Geneva: Small Arms Survey, 2007. 360p.

By Savannah de Tessières

Measuring Illicit Arms Flows: Niger examines the measurement of illicit arms flows in Niger in the context of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), specifically SDG 16. Based on field research conducted in Niger, the Briefing Paper maps the national and international bodies that collect data relevant to monitoring the evolution of illicit arms flows in and through Niger. It also discusses the relevance of Indicator 16.4.2 and suggests ways to improve the monitoring of progress towards the achievement of SDG Target 16.4 in Niger, and more widely in Africa

Geneva: Small Arms Survey, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, 2017. 12p.

By Savannah de Tessières

This Report from the Small Arms Survey’s Security Assessment in North Africa (SANA) project examines insecurity, terrorism, and trafficking in Niger.The Sahel hosts multiple conflicts with myriad armed actors destabilizing the entire region. Positioned at the heart of this region, Niger sits at the crossroads of terrorism, trafficking, and conflict. The Nigerien state has great difficulty in guaranteeing domestic security, which has a devastating impact on social and economic development, in addition to it reinforcing tensions and fueling local conflicts. Older tensions become locked into new insecurity dynamics, such as terrorism, further complicating any future resolutions. Armed banditry, trafficking of weapons and drugs, violent community disputes, and the rise in terrorist attacks are all symptomatic of the State’s struggles. At the Crossroads of Sahelian Conflicts: Insecurity, Terrorism, and Arms Trafficking in Niger, authored by Savannah de Tessières, a senior consultant to the Survey, draws on extensive fieldwork in the regions of Agadez, Diffa, and Niamey. This included examinations of arms and ammunition seized across the country, as well as dozens of interviews with national and international government and security officials, civil society representatives, gold diggers, former rebels, and other experts.

Geneva: Small Arms Survey, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, 2008. 114p.

By Nicolas Florquin, Sigrid Lipott, Francis Wairagu

In the first-ever continental analysis of illicit arms flows in Africa, the African Union Commission and the Small Arms Survey identify the scale, availability, characteristics, and supply patterns of illicit small arms in Africa. The African Union (AU) Master Roadmap of Practical Steps to Silence the Guns in Africa by Year 2020 was adopted in January 2017 and sets out practical steps to address the underlying drivers of conflict as well as the tools and enablers of violence. Preventing the illicit flows of weapons within Africa, including to conflict zones, is a vital component of the AU Roadmap, and this report aims to provide AU member states with a synthesis of relevant information on the topic. Weapons Compass: Mapping Illicit Small Arms Flows in Africa finds that cross-border trafficking by land is the most prominent type of illicit arms flow affecting countries on the continent. The weapons trafficked comprise both those sourced from within the continent—such as legacy weapons recycled from earlier conflicts and weapons diverted from national stockpiles—as well as arms sourced from other parts of the world, including embargo-breaking transfers from the Middle East and Eastern Europe. The report provides practical recommendations for AU member states to tackle illicit arms flows by noting specific assessments that can be generated to fill knowledge gaps; practical guidance and tools to develop; and ways in which to support and coordinate the implementation of those recommended actions.

Geneva: Small Arms Survey, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, 2019. 100[p.

By Matt Schroeder and Olena Shumska

Making the Rounds: Illicit Ammunition in Ukraine finds that thousands of hand grenades, rockets, mortar rounds, landmines, and tins of firearms cartridges have proliferated throughout Ukraine, including to areas located far from the conflict zone in the east. Presenting findings from a comprehensive review of imagery and information on illicit ammunition trafficked to, from, and within Ukraine, the report includes an analysis of markings on more than 1,600 seized hand grenades, shoulder-fired rockets, ammunition tins, and anti-personnel landmines. The report reveals the types and sources of illicit ammunition in the country, as well as the modes of transport and smuggling techniques used by Ukrainian arms traffickers and their co-conspirators abroad. The analysis shows that the overwhelming majority of the 1,600 items analyzed were Soviet-designed models produced in Eastern European and Soviet factories prior to the dissolution of the USSR. Curbing the threat to local and regional security posed by this ammunition requires a long-term, coordinated effort by Ukrainian authorities and the international community.

Geneva: Small Arms Survey, 2021. 68p.