By Jennifer Maeng

This study, funded by a grant awarded by the U.S. Department of Justice to the University of Virginia in 2020, examined the implementation of student threat assessment in Florida public schools. This project investigated threat assessment training and implementation, the kinds of threat cases that schools experienced, and how they were resolved. Of special interest was whether threat assessment was conducted without disproportionate negative consequences for students across diverse groups defined by race, ethnicity, and special education (disability) status. This project used a mixed-method approach with four broad research questions:

1. What are stakeholder reactions to training and implementation of threat assessment in their school?

2. What are the characteristics of threat assessments conducted in Florida public schools?

3. What relationships exist among academic, disciplinary, and legal outcomes for students receiving a threat assessment?

4. Are there adverse disparities in student outcomes associated with race, ethnicity, or special education status?

Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia, 2024. 141p.

By Iain Mansfield, Dr Sean Phillips and Niamh Webb

Across the globe, societies are grappling with the dramatic decline in mental health amongst young people – particularly young women. The phenomenon has been particularly notable since the early 2010s and cannot be attributed simply to greater awareness or reduced stigma because of measurable increases in the prevalence of emotional disorders, such as depression and anxiety, or of loneliness, as well as growth in serious mental illness, self-harm and suicide. One important element of the debate is the link between smartphones, social media and mental health – and, accordingly, whether or not mobile phones should be banned in schools. Policy Exchange submitted Freedom of Information requests to 800 primary and secondary schools across the UK to ascertain both the true state of phone bans in UK schools, and whether there was a link between school performance and a school’s mobile phone policy. We found that while the vast majority of primary schools had effective bans, only 11% of secondary schools had effective bans – with others allowing phones to be used in break or lunch, or permitting pupils to keep phones present on them. By examining the results for secondary schools in England, we found that schools with an effective ban were more than twice as likely to be rated Outstanding as the national average. We also found that children at schools with an effective ban achieved GCSE results that were 1 – 2 grades higher (equivalent to a Progress 8 differential of 0.13 – 0.25) compared to children at schools with laxer policies. This was despite the fact that schools with effective bans had a higher proportion of pupils eligible for Free School Meals than schools with less restrictive policies. Smartphones, Mental Health and Schools A range of factors have been suggested as catalysing or hastening the decline in the mental health of children and young people in recent years. Perhaps the most significant hypothesis examined in recent years has been the link between smartphone ownership, social media use and a greater prevalence of mental and behavioural disorders. The most recent work by influential scholars including Professors Jonathan Haidt and Jean Twenge however now suggests smartphones represent a causative factor in declining children and adolescent mental health, necessitating a review of our underlying policy assumptions. As Haidt wrote last year, “skepticism was justified in 2019 but is not justified in 2023.” The case for banning smartphones in schools has similarly been developing. UNESCO has found that 1 in 7 countries globally have policies which ban smartphones in schools. In the UK, the decision on whether or not to ban phones is left to the individual school, although the Department for Education earlier this year issued non-statutory guidance that encouraged schools to implement a ban. Research globally has found correlations between bans and a range of positive outcomes, including reduced bullying, an overall reduction in social media usage, increased healthy play, reduced distraction and improved academic attainment. One former study carried out at schools in four English cities found improved student performance in high stakes exams following phone bans – with the impact particularly strong for the lowest achieving pupils. Overall, the academic evidence of the positive impact of school bans is increasingly suggestive, though not yet conclusive – and it is clear that how effectively a ban is enforced, rather than just the existence of a policy, is critical in whether or not a ban will lead to effective results. It is sometimes said that almost all schools in England have policies banning smartphones. This is correct; however, the Government’s most recent National Behaviour Survey found that 38% of teachers and 57% of pupils said that some, most or all lessons has been disrupted by mobile phones in the previous week. We therefore set out to investigate the true state of smartphone usage in UK schools – and whether there was a link to school performance.

London: Policy Exchange, 2024. 64p.

By Jo Deakin, Claire Fox, Raquel Matos

The construction and labelling of groups of young people as ‘risky’ sets off a multifaceted and dynamic social process of stigma that frequently results in reduced life chances and limited opportunities for change. Drawing on case study data from 4 European countries, this paper focuses on the ways in which stigma is reproduced through interactions and interventions that label young people. Our analysis explores how young people experience and understand stigma, and how they respond to it. Framed within a theoretical understanding of stigma as a construct of power we examine its components and cyclical process, its role in shaping policies of social control, and its consequences for groups of ‘risky’ young people. Our analysis develops Link and Phelan’s (2001) concept to include reference to young people’s reactions and responses: alienation and marginalisation; anger and resistance; empathy and generativity. In conclusion, we argue that stigma acts primarily as an inhibitor of young people’s constructive engagement in wider society, serving to reduce beneficial opportunities. However, some young people are able to resist the label, and, for them, resistance can become generative and enabling.

European Journal of Criminology. 19, 4, p. 653-673 21 p., 2022

By Jo Deakin, Claire Fox and Aimee Harragan

This paper considers experiences of penal and voluntary-sector interventions in the lives of young people labelled as ‘troubled’ or ‘at risk’ of criminal behaviour. Drawing on data from a case-study conducted in the north of England, this paper focuses on the narratives of young people ‘on the margins’ of society who were involved with a range of community-based interventions, specifically youth clubs, a support group and a mandatory youth justice course. We consider how young people experience and respond to stigmatising elements prevalent in the structured interventions and everyday interactions with the institutions and agencies intended to support them. We argue that ‘promotive’ relationships between young people and the adults working with them enable young people to challenge risk-based identities and navigate the barriers they face

International Journal of Law in Context. 2022;18(1):100-115. doi:10.1017/S1744552322000064

By Natalie Beck and Jennifer S. Wong

The purpose of the present meta-analysis was to determine the effectiveness of wilderness therapy in addressing youth delinquency. A systematic review of the literature was conducted using 27 electronic databases and numerous gray literature sources, surveying literature published from 1990 to 2020. The search identified 189 potential studies for inclusion, resulting in a final study pool of 11 studies contributing 14 effect sizes from a total sample of 1,874 treatment youths. Both self-reported delinquency and caregiver-reported delinquency were examined using separate random-effects models. Pooled analyses yielded large, positive, and significant effects of 0.832 and 1.054 respectively, indicating that wilderness therapy is potentially an effective tool for addressing delinquent behaviors among youth. Limitations of the study include a lack of moderator analyses due to the small sample sizes. Wilderness therapy is a promising form of diversion programming and further investigation into this treatment modality is warranted.

Criminal Justice and Behavior, Volume 49, Issue 5, May 2022, Pages 700-729

By Caitlin Cavanagh

Adolescents are developmentally distinct from adults in ways that merit a tailored response to juvenile crime. Normative adolescent brain development is associated with increases in risk taking, which may include criminal behavior. Juvenile delinquency peaks during the adolescent years and declines in concert with psychosocial maturation. However, current U.S. approaches to juvenile justice are misaligned with youth's developmental needs and may undermine the very psychosocial development necessary for youth to transition out of crime and lead healthy adult lives. In this article, I discuss empirically supported and efficacious responses to juvenile crime in the United States, as well as opportunities for further developmental reform of the juvenile justice system. Developmentally appropriate responses to juvenile crime prioritize community-based corrections and engage youth's social context in the rehabilitative process. The juvenile justice system shares the responsibility to prepare youth to live fulfilling, productive adult lives; that responsibility can be achieved by partnering with developmental scientists to inform juvenile justice practice and policy.

Child Development Perspectives, Volume 16, Issue 3 Sept. 2022 pages 125-187

Edited by: Joseph Giordmaina and Michela Scalpello

In 2019, a group or representatives from various countries interested in education and rehabilitation in prisons, through the Erasmus+ programme, sub-programme for Support for Policy Reform, submitted an application according the call for proposal EACEA-34-2019 in the Action: Social Inclusion through Education, Training and Youth. The focus of this sub action is the Social Inclusion and Common Values: The Contribution in the Field of Education. The partners meet informally to discuss the application, and decided to focus on an inclusive approach to persons in prison, social rehabilitation and education. Following the application stage, the partners were awarded funding for a three-year project entitled: Inclusive Approach to Inmate Social Rehabilitation and Education, the acronym of which is REEDU. The partnership is made up of the applicant organisation, Centre for Education and Culture Trebnje (CIK), The Slovenia Association for Social Work (ACSW), the Prison Education and Re-Entry Platform, University of Malta (UM), the International Association for Correctional and Forensic Psychology Europe (IACFP Europe), the Bremen Ministry of Justice and Constitution and Baia Mare Prison, Romania. The partnership was rewarded close to half a million euros to complete the project. The Project This project promotes the idea that resilience and desistence to crime need the support of the family and the community, and that it is necessary for successful rehabilitative programmes in prisons, particularly those focused on work with juveniles, to include significant others in their programmes. The family is considered to be the first model of a community in which we socialise, in which we share values, such as those of truth, respect, love and solidarity (Brighouse & Swift, 2014). It is the place where we are nurtured and initiated in the norms of the society we live in. These values are then shared with the extended family, and eventually with the outside world, such as schools, the place of work and one’s greater social circle. 

By Melissa M. Labriola, Samuel Peterson, Dulani Woods, Michael J. D. Vermeer, Brian A. Jackson

Based on a one-day count, the number of youth held in juvenile justice facilities declined 77 percent between 2000 and 2020. As a result, the number of residential placement facilities has also decreased, by 50 percent. This decrease is starkest among large facilities, which have decreased 74 percent from 1997 to 2019. Facility closure has gained attention and support for several reasons, such as investments in alternative rehabilitation and community-based programs, cost savings, and recognition of the need to treat youth involved in the juvenile justice system with a focus on rehabilitation rather than punitive measures. The decisions to close these facilities are complex.

This report presents findings and recommendations from an expert panel that explored challenges and opportunities associated with closing juvenile residential facilities and implementing community-based alternatives. The highest-priority needs centered on equity and disparity and the need for family engagement throughout the punitive process. These results are pertinent to a wide audience, including justice-system stakeholders, community corrections practitioners, the research community, and funders or grant-making organizations

Rand. 2024. 24p.

By Carey Marr, Sara Singh, Claire Gaskin, John Kasinathan, Trisha Lloyd & Kimberlie Dean

Past research suggests that diverting young people away from the criminal justice system and into mental health services can reduce subsequent reoffending, but the impact of such programs on the rates of timely mental health service contact are largely unknown. In this study, we examined a sample of 523 young people who were deemed eligible for mental health diversion between 2008 and 2015. Around half (47%) of these young people were granted diversion by a Magistrate. Overall, the levels of timely mental health service contact after court finalization, even for those who were granted diversion, appeared low given that the purpose of diversion is to facilitate such contact for all those diverted. Specifically, only 22% of those who were granted community-based diversion and 62% of individuals granted inpatient-based diversion had mental health service contact within 7 days of court finalization. Rates of health contact were much lower for those who were not granted either type of diversion (8% and 23%, respectively). Diversion was associated with a significant reduction in reoffending rates, but the impact of early mental health service contact was less clear. There is a need to understand the reasons why many young people are not accessing appropriate mental health services following diversion in order to improve outcomes and fully realize the intended benefits of mental health court diversion.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FORENSIC MENTAL HEALTH, 2024, VOL. 23, NO. 3, 204–216https://doi.org/10.1080/14999013.2023.2276961

By Clarence Okoh

Public and private actors are turning to artificial intelligence (AI) and other big data technologies to engineer new futures for structural racism and social inequality in the United States, a phenomenon that the sociologist Ruha Benjamin has termed the “New Jim Code.”

These technologies are upending decades of civil and human rights legal standards, expanding mass criminalization, restricting access to social services, and enabling systemic discrimination in housing, employment, and health care, among other areas.3 The New Jim Code carries unique threats to youth and young adults of color, especially in the context of K-12 public schools.

In recent years, federal policymakers have taken steps to address the societal implications of AI and big data technologies, including the White House Blueprint for an AI Bill of Rights, President Biden’s Executive Order on Artificial Intelligence, and the U.S. Department of Education’s guidance on AI in schools. However, these efforts have largely failed to address the specific harms that these technologies raise for youth and young adults of color and youth from other historically marginalized communities.

As the infrastructure of police surveillance grows in public schools, communities must be prepared to safeguard the rights and freedoms of students and families. This report is designed to help youth justice advocates, youth leaders, educators, caregivers, and policymakers understand and challenge the impact of school surveillance, data criminalization, and police surveillance technologies in schools.

This report includes:

• An analysis of six key facts about the impacts of data criminalization and school surveillance technologies on education equity.

• A case study of an AI school surveillance technology that can land children in adult misdemeanor court.

• Key recommendations for education policymakers and school district leaders for advancing youth data justice.

Washington, DC:CLASP, 2024. 17p.

By Delfina Bilello, Lucy J. Swancott, Juliane A. Kloess, Stephanie Burnett Heyes

Introduction: Gang involvement poses serious risks to young people, including antisocial and criminal behavior, sexual and criminal exploitation, and mental health problems. There is a need for research-informed development of preventive interventions. To this end, we conducted a qualitative study of young people’s responses to an educational virtual reality (VR) experience of an encounter with a gang, to understand young people’s decisions, emotions and consequences. 

Methods: Young people (N = 24 aged 13-15, 11 female, 13 male) underwent the VR experience followed by semi-structured focus group discussions. Questions focused on virtual decision-making (motivations, thoughts, feelings, consequences) and user experiences of taking part. Data were analysed using Thematic Analysis. 

Results: Three themes were developed to represent how participants’ perceptions of the gang, themselves, and the context influenced virtual decisions. Social pressure from the gang competed with participants’ wish to stand by their morals and establish individual identity. The VR setting, through its escalating events and plausible characters, created an “illusion of reality” and sense of authentic decisions and emotions, yielding insights for real-life in a safe, virtual environment. 

Discussion: Findings shed light on processes influencing adolescent decision-making in a virtual context of risk-taking, peer pressure and contact with a gang. Particularly, they highlight the potential for using VR in interventions with young people, given its engaging and realistic nature.

Front. Virtual Real., 16 July 2023

By Andrew McGrath, Alison Gerard, and Emma Colvin

The current study examines the factors underlying pathways from out-of-home care into the criminal justice system. Using a multi-method approach—specifically, court observations, file reviews, and qualitative interviews—we found evidence of how histories of trauma and situational factors relating to the care environment interact to increase criminalization. While many policy initiatives have been developed to address this criminalization, in all parts of our study we found little evidence these are having an impact on practice in relation to care-experienced children. Some innovations we observed in our United Kingdom case study offer potential solutions to address this serious and ongoing problem.

Trends & issues in crime and criminal justice no. 600. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. 2020. 14p.

By The Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime’s Observatory of Illicit Economies in South Eastern Europe (SEE-Obs)  

The Western Balkan Six (WB6) has historically not been at the center of attention and research investigating commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC). Despite a growing body of literature on human trafficking in southeastern Europe generally, there is little data on CSEC specifically. Information is rarely reported by local media, also because the patriarchal and traditional structure of societies in the Western Balkans fuels a widespread belief that sexual exploitation of children either does not exist or is an exception rather than the rule. Very few reports have therefore previously looked at the WB6’s role, its vulnerabilities, and its contribution to the CSEC phenomenon in a comprehensive way. At the same time as CSEC is gaining attention globally, societies and institutions in the Western Balkans continue to have low levels of awareness and capacity to take on the phenomenon. CSEC manifests itself in several interconnected forms in the WB6, including in the sex trafficking of minors, exploitation of children in travel and tourism, early and forced marriage, and sexual exploitation in venues such as brothels, bars, and strip clubs. It is also reflected in the creation and distribution of child sexual abuse materials (CSAM) online, including but not limited to the recording, live-streaming, sharing, and downloading of materials depicting minors being sexually exploited. There are also several overlaps between CSEC and other forms of exploitation, including labor exploitation (e.g., begging). Even before the COVID-19 pandemic hit the WB6, the region was recording an increasing number of CSEC cases. Given the lack of research and court data that could serve as a basis for analysis, there is no common profile of perpetrators involved in CSEC in the region. It seems that perpetrators are operating across the region without much scrutiny, facilitated by digital technologies and networks, the rise in tourism, and widespread weaknesses in the child protection system. Criminal actors also take advantage of the region’s socio-economic vulnerabilities and endemic marginalization, making various ethnic minorities even more vulnerable. This report assesses children’s vulnerability to CSEC across the WB6 and focuses specifically on online sexual exploitation of children and sexual exploitation of children in travel and tourism (SECTT). It also provides an overview of what law enforcement authorities, private companies, and civil society organizations are doing – and what they are not doing – to respond to, combat, and prevent the various manifestations of CSEC.

Geneva: SWIT: The Initiative, 2021. 96p.

By Aysegul Kayaoglu

A child laborer makes a most casual sight in Istanbul. In many sectors from construction to textiles, Turkey's business capital is where thousands of children go to work on any day. In this huge metropolis of over 15 million residents, child labor has long been a given. However, is it also inescapable? Are children hopelessly destined for abusive work here forever? This report is the product of a meticulous study conducted by a group of researchers who believe otherwise. They aimed to paint a comprehensive picture of the urban child labor in Istanbul with all its push and pull factors accurately identified for both girls and boys. They went door to door to meet all stakeholders -- children, parents, employers, teachers, elected officials, and experts as well as workers at public agencies and not-for-profit organizations. This summary report pertains to the specific case of Syrian refugee children as well as those of the low-income host community and the extremely impoverished Roma people. There, readers will not only see critical statistics and insights deduced from the interviews but also hear members of those study groups speak for themselves and discuss their experiences, perceptions, hopes, and fears. What follows is a long list of findings and recommendations that could be useful in actual policymaking and implementation.

London: Save the Children International, 2021. 63p.

By Janne Kivivuori

This book presents a history of the self-report crime survey as a method of criminological inquiry, describing how it was born within a distinct moral framework by pioneers out to show that crime was very prevalent and, therefore, normal. It recounts how, during the 1930s and 1940s, a handful of U.S. criminologists discovered the method of the self-report delinquency survey — a method used to ask people directly about their crimes. Previously, criminologists had to rely on official statistics produced by the police and other control authorities; their studies were therefore constrained by the ‘official control barrier’, which perpetuated the notion that crime was linked to the lowest social strata and/or to psychological abnormality. By confronting the domination of psychiatrists and psychologists in the study of crime, criminologists began to challenge the punitive attitudes of society; thus, exposing the so-called white-collar offenders and alerting people to see crime as something that could also be found among the middle and upper classes. Expounding both the history of that discovery and its implications for criminological work, past and present, this book offers a perspective on how criminology has developed, and how it continues to advance amid the twin pressures of facts and policy goals.

Oxford, UK: New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.